Cosmic Harmony and Moral Character: Music, Philosophy and the Soul in Al-Kindi and Al-Farabi

In modern society, many consider music to be a form of entertainment or leisure, appreciated mainly to its ability to amuse or distract. However, when studying the lives of philosophers within the medieval Islamicate World, evidence of music being studied as a science and a means for the cultivation of virtue can be found. The works of Al-Kindi and Al-Farabi suggest that music has a transcendent quality, reflecting the order in the cosmos, capable of influencing and shaping the human soul. Anyone who plays an instrument or listens deeply to music understands the way it is able to evoke powerful emotional states and alter moods which raises the question: can music genuinely shape character or is it simply a temporary influence and an escape from reality? As a Muslim and musician myself, I have been taught that religion and music stand in tension which is a personal conflict I face every time I play my guitar. However, after some research, I have discovered a civilisation within the Islamic Golden Age in which music was considered scientific and philosophical which challenges traditional views of the relationship between faith and arts, contributing to my view of music being more than a distraction and rather a guide for the human soul to reach moral perfection.

One of the key centres for artistic and musical activity during the Islamic Golden Age was Baghdad, where the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate during the 8th century led to an era of cultural and artistic flourishing. Baghdad was the intellectual centre of the Islamic states, and it remained so for several centuries. This led to the movement of artists, scholars, religious leaders, and slaves into Baghdad which contributed significantly to the growth of literature, art, and music within that period as a result of the interaction of diverse cultures which arrived due to the migration. For example, during the caliphate (reign) of al-Ma'mun, Muslim scholars translated famous ancient Greek musical treatises written by Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Nichomachus which played a fundamental role in refining theoretical and practical knowledge of music, demonstrating how foreign influences helped shape the soundscape of the Abbasid world. Furthermore, other Abbasid caliphs, notably Harun al-Rashid, openly supported musicians by providing salaries, awarding prizes, and granting property which shows that music was not a mere leisure activity but a valued profession that came with high social status. In the eighth and ninth centuries, music schools were established, helping to reduce social restrictions on men who wished to pursue careers in music as it had been traditionally seen as a profession for trained female slaves. The significance of music for females as well was major. These female performers developed into a recognised group known as the Qiyan (singing girls), who used their musical skills to gain significant social standing, fame, and wealth. Music played a central role in everyday life, much as it does in many societies today. From the sound of trumpets and drumbeats to prepare warriors on the battlefield for combat, to musical-poetic gatherings known as majlis organised by the wealthy, and even performances in the royal courts, music was an integral part of the Abbasid cultural and social identity of the period. In such a society, where music was both a science, a lived cultural practice, and a means for cultural exchange, it is not surprising that philosophers sought to understand its deeper significance and metaphysical power.

Al-Kindi was an Iraqi philosopher in the 9th century who resided in Baghdad and is well known as the first major music theorist of the Arab world. He was inspired by Greek philosophy and blended elements of it with Islamic traditions, drawing heavily on the work of Greek philosopher Pythagoras who believed that musical intervals and harmony reflect the fundamental structure of the universe. Agreeing with Pythagoras, Al-Kindi believed that musical harmony mirrors the proportional structure of the cosmos and that the movement of celestial bodies follow similar numerical proportions as musical intervals, suggesting a cosmic harmony rooted in reality. In music, intervals arise from simple numerical ratios (for example an octave comes from a 2:1 ratio of string lengths) and the ordered motion of planets follow similar mathematical principles which is why Pythagoreans suggest that the universe performs a "music of the spheres", an metaphor describing the idea of harmony embedded in the cosmos. Another example of this harmony in music being mirrored in nature can be seen in Al-Kindi's analysis of the oud, a traditional four-stringed fretless instrument, and often referred to as the "king of instruments" in Arabic music. Al-Kindi regarded the oud as a symbolic representation of the Pythagorean ideas (cosmic order) and he associated each of the oud's four strings with features of the natural world, including the four elements (fire, earth, air, water), the seasons, phases of the moon and the bodily humours (four fluids that ancient, medieval medical theory believe human health and personality depend on). For example, the highest string was linked with fire and the humour "yellow bile" and was believed to incite courage and strength while the other strings were related to emotions of joy, melancholy or calm. Al-Kindi was able to relate each of the strings to certain feelings through their different pitch and physical characteristics; the lowest string, the "bamm" was thick and produced a low pitch which was why it was associated with reflection, calmness and grief.

This theory is part of a broader philosophical belief of balance in nature being a result of harmony between opposing elements such as light and darkness in the cycle of night and day. Similarly, a combination of musical tones was thought to contribute to human emotional and psychological harmony within the soul. Al Kindi believed that music had a quality that made it able to directly impact the character of the listener, producing effects on their temperament, calming anxiety, or even inspiring courage. That direct influence of music emotionally is seen in the modern era with music being used in all sorts of situations including Virginia Tech college in the USA playing "Enter Sandman" by Metallica as their football players take the field, inciting that warrior mentality within the players, much like how military bands and rhythmic drumming were used to energise soldiers before battle during the Abbasid Caliphate. Al-Kindi's profound insight of musical harmony impacting emotions reveals an extraordinary continuity between early Islamic philosophy and contemporary understandings of music, showing how remarkable the effect of music is, transcending cultures and eras, constantly capable of shaping human life.

After the time of Al-Kindi, another philosopher who expanded on the synthesis of Greek philosophy and Islamic tradition emerged by the name of Al-Farabi. Unlike Al-Kindi, Al-Farabi treats music as a rational science of sound and emotion and is less interested in the mystical cosmology that gripped Al-Kindi, focusing on grounding music in mathematics and psychology as well as how music actually works in human experience. In his famous "Kitab al-Musiqa al-Kabir" (The Great Book of Music), Al-Farabi discussed the nature of musical sounds, as well as the mathematical nature of musical intervals and similarly to Al-Kindi, the effects of music on the human soul. He argued that music can stimulate a range of emotional responses and this should be used to promote moral development, cultivate moral character, and better society. This aligns with principles seen in modern applications of music in mental health practises, where music is used to address emotional and psychological distress. In another work of Al-Farabi called "Ihsa al-Ulum" (The Enumeration of the Sciences), Al-Farabi classifies music in a branch of mathematics, and he uses mathematical principles to analyse musical intervals and scales. He developed tuning methods for instruments based on Pythagoras' teachings of musical intervals corresponding to numerical ratios by adapting these theoretical concepts to practical instruments like the oud. This ensured harmony in performances and enabled for experimentation of tonal combinations through a precise framework. Furthermore, Al-Farabi is recognised for his writings regarding modal tones within Middle Eastern music through what would later became known as maqam theory. This theory refers to a modal framework where each mode is defined by a particular scale, tonal centre and characteristic melodic movement which creates a distinctive sound. Each mode with its distinctive sound evokes different specific emotional and psychological responses, showing how music is capable of regulating emotional states and cultivating inner harmony within the soul, reflecting ideas found in the work of Al-Kindi. As a Malaysian, this maqam theory is prevalent in local traditional instruments such as the gamelan and the rebab which demonstrate structured tuning and modal qualities that echo Al-Farabi's musical ideas, which illustrates how his framework has shaped music in cultures across great distances and centuries. Moreover, in his writings regarding broader political philosophy, Al-Farabi conveys his vision of an ideal society governed by virtue, social order and wisdom. This is seen in his work "al-Madina al-Fadila" (The Virtuous City), and music plays a significant role within this vision to help with moral education and shaping citizens' character by promoting emotional balance. For Al-Farabi, emotional regulation is essential to ethical behaviour, and he believes music is a way to guide individuals towards inner harmony without coercion, allowing for social order and moral virtue to flourish.

Although philosophers such as Al-Kindi and Al-Farabi emphasise the positive effects of music on the soul and moral development, many Islamic scholars highlight music's potential dangers. The same strong influence that allows it to shape character and promote harmony can also encourage uncontrolled emotions and desires, leading individuals away from balance. In an Islamic context, many are concerned that music can result in prioritisation of sensory enjoyment through entertainment over spiritual reflection, which is again supported by the fact that music is played in many gatherings where behaviour is not religiously disciplined or ethical, for example nightclubs or discos. Ibn Taymiyyah, a highly influential Islamic scholar, even regarded musical instruments as haram (forbidden) as he believed they are a distraction from the Quran and cause spiritual intoxication. He argued music to be "Wine of the Soul", able to intoxicate the spirit similarly to alcohol intoxicating the body, potentially leading individuals away from moral and ethical conduct. In addition, his ideas include that love for music and love for the Quran cannot coexist in a person's heart, as he believed deep attachment to music could weaken one's receptivity to the Quran. For Ibn Taymiyyah, music is linked to worldly pleasure and emotional excitement while Quranic recitation cultivates humility, reflection, and closeness to God. He believed that love of music and love of the Quran struggle for dominance within the heart, with each of them trying to displace each other. Although Ibn Taymiyyah's position may appear strict, it highlights concerns that are meaningful and have validity. Due to music being a powerful force, capable of guiding emotional and moral development while also creating the possibility of distraction and excess, it requires moderation and careful understanding. Other Muslim scholars such as Al-Ghazali adopted more nuanced positions, arguing that the moral value of music is derived from context and effects on the listener. He believed that music is permissible as long as it is used to evoke love for Allah, ease, or joy, provided it does not encourage sinful desire or lust. As specified before, music can elevate the soul and inspire reflection, which is why in Sufi traditions (Sufism - a spiritual dimension of Islam), musical practises are used as a means of remembering God, serving as a pathway to spiritual growth. Its transformative power must be used in moderation, which underlies the central theme in Islam of balance and harmony.

From my own experience as both a Muslim and a musician, the tension created from music has led to me understanding my faith deeper and understanding the role of arts within religious life. Rather than viewing music as inherently opposed to Islam, my research has led me to perceive it as something that needs to be moderated, and used in a correct context in order not to stray away from my personal spiritual path to God. Therefore, while music may sometimes function as escapism, its capacity to guide the soul makes it a meaningful part of human morality and spirituality, and not merely a distraction from reality.